Introduction
In order to understand the position that astrology currently holds in our society, it is useful to retrace its history. This knowledge forms a useful background to what is to come.
Modern day astrology is a mess, filled with half truths, superstitions and techniques that have been added to and perverted over the course of time. Modern day astrologers learn these techniques and superstitions and accept them without question. So understanding the history of astrology helps to provide some context as to why this is.
Ancient Mesopotamia and the Beginnings of Astrology
It is thought that astrology has its origins in Mesopotamia in the the third millenium BC, making its way to Babylon, which is now modern day Iraq, around the 5th century BC, and later reaching other countries such as Egypt, Greece, Rome and India, thus establishing it in these cultures.
Other cultures not connected to Greco-Roman or Arabic cultures, such as Australian Aboriginals which are said to date back at least 50,000 years, also have their own versions of astronomy and astrology that manifest in the stories of the Dreaming. These stories describe the movement of the sun, moon and visible planets, along with phenomena such as phases of the moon, eclipses and the celestial effect on the seasons. The Aboriginals in fact developed quite elaborate calendars in order to track these movements.
Egyptian Contributions to Astrology
In Egypt, astrology became intertwined with religious and philosophical thought. Egyptian priests closely observed the stars and their movements, associating them with the cycles of life, death, and the afterlife. The most significant astrological development in ancient Egypt was the creation of the decans — 36 groups of stars, each rising just before dawn, which were used to mark time over the course of the year. This method of timekeeping allowed Egyptians to track celestial events accurately.
Furthermore, the heliacal rising of the star Sirius, associated with the goddess Isis, marked the start of the Egyptian New Year and was considered a symbol of rebirth. The Egyptians’ early concept of astrology revolved around the idea that the fate of individuals was determined by the position of the stars, a belief that would eventually influence later Greco-Roman astrology.
Greek and Hellenistic Influence
Astrology gained its philosophical and intellectual foundation in ancient Greece, where it was integrated with the burgeoning fields of astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy. By the time of Plato (428–348 BCE), Greek philosophers had adopted Babylonian and Egyptian celestial theories, adapting them to their own worldview. Plato and his followers believed that the cosmos was an ordered and harmonious system, and astrology was seen as a tool to understand the cosmic order.
However, it was the Hellenistic period (circa 3rd century BCE) that truly set astrology on its path toward becoming an organised and codified discipline. Alexandria, a cosmopolitan city, played a crucial role in the dissemination of astrology, where scholars such as Claudius Ptolemy (circa 100–170 CE) integrated the mathematical and observational aspects of astrology into the scientific frameworks of the time. Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos (The Four Books) is one of the most influential works in the history of astrology, establishing principles that would govern Western astrology for centuries. Ptolemy argued that the positions of the planets influenced earthly events, but human free will still played a role in determining individual outcomes.
The Roman Empire and Astrology
Astrology flourished under Roman rule, especially during the Empire’s expansion in the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. The Romans, who had long been interested in omens and divination, embraced astrology as a tool of statecraft and personal prediction. Emperor Augustus, for example, consulted astrologers for advice on military and political matters. The Roman elite, including emperors and senators, believed that astrological forecasts could provide insight into their fates.
The Roman philosopher and statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE) was critical of astrology, regarding it as a superstition, yet he acknowledged its influence. The poet Virgil (70–19 BCE) also referenced astrology in his Aeneid, reflecting the widespread belief in its power. However, despite its popularity among the Roman aristocracy, astrology faced criticism from other philosophers, such as the Stoics, who emphasised human rationality and free will.
The Decline of Classical Astrology and the Rise of Christianity
The decline of astrology in the Western world came with the rise of Christianity. Early Christian theologians, such as St. Augustine (354–430 CE), strongly criticized astrology, viewing it as incompatible with Christian doctrine, particularly the belief in free will and divine providence. Christian scholars regarded astrology as a form of pagan superstition.
However, despite Christian opposition, astrology continued to thrive in the Islamic world, where scholars preserved and expanded upon Greek and Roman astrological works. The Islamic Golden Age (8th–14th centuries CE) saw the translation and development of key texts, such as those of Ptolemy, as well as the introduction of new astrological theories. Islamic scholars such as Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) and Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037 CE) wrote extensively on astrology, blending it with Islamic thought and medicine. Al-Biruni (973–1050 CE), another prominent scholar, advanced the field of astrology through his work on calculating the positions of celestial bodies with remarkable precision.
Medieval Astrology in Europe
In medieval Europe, astrology experienced a revival, particularly with the translation of Arabic astrological texts into Latin during the 12th century. Scholars such as Gerard of Cremona (1114–1187) and others brought works like Tetrabiblos back into circulation. By the 13th and 14th centuries, astrology was taught in European universities as part of the medical curriculum, where it was closely linked to the practice of medicine.
Astrologers during the medieval period focused on the connection between celestial bodies and human health. The concept of the “humours,” derived from Galenic medicine, was integrated with astrological theory, with the belief that the planets influenced a person’s physical and mental state. Astrological physicians, such as Guido Bonatti (1222–1306), were highly regarded, and kings often employed astrologers to predict everything from the weather to the success of military campaigns.
Despite the growing influence of astrology, the rise of Renaissance humanism in the 15th century brought challenges to astrological practices. While many Renaissance thinkers, such as Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499), maintained a belief in the influence of the stars, others, like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), criticised astrology on the grounds of its deterministic nature.
The Enlightenment and the Decline of Astrology
The Enlightenment (17th and 18th centuries) marked a turning point for astrology in Europe. As scientific rationalism gained ground, astrology came under increasing scrutiny. Figures such as Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and other early scientists emphasised empirical evidence and mathematical reasoning, displacing astrology from its place as a legitimate branch of knowledge. During this period, astrology was increasingly relegated to the realm of superstition and was often ridiculed.
However, despite its decline in the scientific community, astrology continued to thrive in popular culture, particularly in the form of horoscopes. The publication of astrological forecasts in newspapers began in the 19th century, making astrology accessible to the masses. This was a period when astrology became more individualised, moving away from its origins in political and medical spheres to focus on personal destiny and character.
Turn of the Century Mysticism
Astrology became an integral part of Hermetic teachings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly within the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a mystical organization that sought to blend various esoteric traditions.
The Golden Dawn incorporated astrology as one of the key systems of correspondence that linked the macrocosm (the universe) with the microcosm (the individual). Astrology was used to enhance magical rituals and to understand the spiritual influences of the planets and stars.
Aleister Crowley, a prominent member of the Golden Dawn, further integrated astrology into his own work following the demise of the Golden Dawn, combining it with Thelema, his own system of philosophy and magic which is still in existence and has adherents today.
Crowley’s writings, such as Liber 777, not only explored astrological principles but also connected them with kabbalistic and tarot systems, creating a syncretic framework where astrology served as a tool for spiritual enlightenment and personal transformation.
Astrology in the 20th Century
In the 20th century, astrology underwent a significant transformation. The advent of psychoanalysis and the popularity of Carl Jung’s work in the early 20th century brought astrology back into intellectual discourse. Jung, in particular, was fascinated by the psychological dimensions of astrology, viewing it as a reflection of the unconscious mind. His work on archetypes and the collective unconscious resonated with astrological thought, and he encouraged a deeper exploration of astrology’s symbolic and psychological significance.
The mid-20th century saw the rise of the New Age movement, which embraced astrology as part of a broader spiritual and holistic worldview. During this time, astrology’s influence grew, especially in the United States, where astrology became a mainstream practice. The publication of the American Ephemeris and the rise of astrologers such as Dane Rudhyar (1895–1985) helped to reframe astrology as a psychological and spiritual tool rather than a deterministic one.
References
- Andrikopoulos, L. (2024). Jung and Twentieth Century Psychological Astrology: Perspectives on Magic, Psychology and Culture, Routledge
- Biruni, M. (1971). Alberuni’s India. Translated by Edward C. Sachau.
- Carey, H (2010). Astrology in the Middle Ages, Wiley Online
- Norris, R. (2009). The Astrology of Aboriginal Australia. Cambridge University Press
- Ptolemy, C. (2011). Ptolemy’sTetrabiblos. Translated by J.M. Ashmand.
